Physiology: cell membrane transport, homeostasis feedback, respiration, gas transport, BP, cardiac cycle/heart sounds, thyroid hormone, calcium homeos

90 topics across 5 chapters

Chapter 1

Cell membrane transport

Membrane structure, permeability, and driving forces

Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion)

3 subtopics

Diffusion basics + Fick’s law (what increases/decreases diffusion rate)

Osmosis, osmolarity, and tonicity (hypo/iso/hypertonic)

Carrier-mediated transport kinetics (saturation, competition, Km/Vmax idea)

Active transport (primary vs secondary)

3 subtopics

Primary active transport: Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and other ATP-driven pumps

Secondary active transport: symport vs antiport (key examples)

Inhibitors + clinical correlations (how blocking pumps/transporters changes physiology)

Vesicular transport (endocytosis, exocytosis, transcytosis)

Electrochemical gradients and membrane potential (Nernst/qualitative)

Practice set: predict direction of solute/water movement across membranes

Chapter 2

Feedback mechanisms in homeostasis

Core control system parts: sensor, integrator, effector, controlled variable

Negative feedback loops (homeostatic stability)

2 subtopics

How to draw a negative-feedback loop diagram (labels + sign of changes)

Gain and sensitivity: quick calculation-style problems

Positive feedback and feedforward control (when/why they occur)

Set point, circadian variation, acclimatization/adaptation

Worked examples (temperature, glucose, osmolarity) and how to write them in exams

Chapter 3

Respiratory physiology: vital capacity, regulation of respiration, transport of gases

Lung volumes & capacities (including vital capacity)

3 subtopics

Spirometry basics: what can/can’t be measured, common patterns

Vital capacity vs TLC/FRC/RV: definitions and relationships

What changes vital capacity (posture, pregnancy, obstructive/restrictive disease)

Mechanics of breathing (pressures, compliance, airway resistance)

Alveolar gas exchange (diffusion, V/Q matching, dead space, shunt concept)

Transport of gases in blood (O₂ and CO₂)

4 subtopics

O₂ transport: Hb saturation, O₂ content, O₂–Hb dissociation curve

CO₂ transport: bicarbonate, carbamino compounds, dissolved CO₂

Bohr and Haldane effects + factors shifting the O₂–Hb curve

Calculation practice: CaO₂/CvO₂, A–a concept (qualitative), VO₂ basics

Neural regulation of respiration

4 subtopics

↗ Electrochemical gradients and membrane potential (Nernst/qualitative) (see Chapter 1)

Brainstem respiratory centers (medullary/pontine roles)

Motor output: phrenic nerve, intercostals, accessory muscles

Respiratory reflexes (e.g., Hering–Breuer, irritant receptors)

Chemical regulation of respiration

3 subtopics

Central chemoreceptors: CO₂/H⁺ and ventilation response

Peripheral chemoreceptors: O₂ sensing and hypoxic drive

Integrated scenarios: exercise, sleep, high altitude, COPD (conceptual questions)

Mixed practice: ABG-style reasoning and ventilation/perfusion question set

Chapter 4

Cardiovascular physiology: BP, cardiac cycle (draw), heart sounds

Heart anatomy + electrical conduction overview (SA/AV/His-Purkinje)

Cardiac cycle: phases, valves, pressures, volumes

3 subtopics

Phase-by-phase events (isovolumetric, ejection, filling) + valve states

ECG correlation (P-QRS-T timing vs mechanical events)

Stroke volume & EF; preload/afterload/contractility (how each shifts output)

Wiggers diagram & pressure–volume loop (must be able to draw)

3 subtopics

Drawing task: Wiggers diagram step-by-step (LA/LV/Ao pressures, volume, ECG, sounds)

Pressure–volume loop: ESPVR/EDPVR; effects of preload/afterload/contractility

Timed drill: label a blank Wiggers + PV loop from memory

Heart sounds and murmurs

3 subtopics

S1–S4: timing, mechanisms, splitting

Murmur logic: stenosis vs regurgitation; systolic vs diastolic patterns

Auscultation areas + maneuvers (inspiration, Valsalva, squatting/standing)

Blood pressure (BP) fundamentals

3 subtopics

MAP and pulse pressure; relationship to CO and TPR

BP measurement (Korotkoff sounds) + common sources of error

Arterial compliance and aging/atherosclerosis effects on systolic & pulse pressure

Regulation of BP (short- and long-term)

5 subtopics

↗ Negative feedback loops (homeostatic stability) (see Chapter 2)

Baroreceptor reflex (seconds-to-minutes control)

2 subtopics

Draw the baroreceptor pathway (carotid/aortic → medulla → SNS/PSNS → heart/vessels)

Posture/hemorrhage drills: predict HR, TPR, venous return, and BP changes

RAAS and volume regulation (angiotensin II, aldosterone)

Local control: myogenic/metabolic autoregulation, endothelial factors (NO, endothelin)

Kidney long-term control: pressure natriuresis/diuresis concept

Integrated practice set: connect cardiac cycle + BP + reflexes in clinical vignettes

Chapter 5

Endocrine physiology: thyroid hormone + calcium homeostasis (PTH, vitamin D, calcitonin)

Hormone signaling basics (receptors, second messengers, gene transcription)

Thyroid hormone synthesis and regulation (HPT axis)

3 subtopics

TRH/TSH control + negative feedback by T3/T4

Gland steps: iodide uptake, organification, coupling, storage, release; peripheral conversion

Inhibitors/drugs & pathology hooks (e.g., thioamides, iodide load, autoimmune)

Thyroid hormone actions (metabolism, growth/brain development, cardiovascular effects)

Thyroid disorders: typical lab patterns + symptoms (primary vs secondary hypo/hyper)

Calcium/phosphate homeostasis: compartments, albumin correction idea, key targets

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

3 subtopics

PTH regulation (CaSR sensing, Mg²⁺ effects) and feedback logic

PTH actions: bone, kidney (Ca²⁺ reabsorption, phosphate), vitamin D activation

Clinical patterns: hyperparathyroidism vs hypoparathyroidism (Ca²⁺/PO₄³⁻/PTH)

Vitamin D (calcitriol)

3 subtopics

Synthesis pathway: skin → liver → kidney; regulation by PTH, phosphate, Ca²⁺

Actions: increase intestinal Ca²⁺/phosphate absorption; bone effects; kidney effects

Deficiency/resistance patterns (rickets/osteomalacia) and CKD effects (secondary HPT)

Calcitonin

2 subtopics

Source and regulation (thyroid C cells; response to high Ca²⁺)

Physiologic role vs clinical relevance (what it does and how important it is)

Table task (tabulation): compare PTH vs vitamin D vs calcitonin + quick exam-style questions